FATFEM20

AMNESIA  Amnesia is the general term for a condition in which memory (either stored memories or the process of committing something to memory) is disturbed or lost, to a greater extent than simple everyday forgetting or absent-mindedness.  Amnesia may result either from organic or neurological causes (damage to the brain through physical injury, neurological disease or the use of certain drugs) or from functional or psychogenic causes (psychological factors, such as mental disorder, post-traumatic stress or psychological defence mechanisms). ■ Did You Know ? Infantile amnesia is the label given to the common inability of adults to remember the earliest years of their childhood, typically from birth until around four years old. Various hypotheses have been put forward, including Sigmund Freud’s theory of the repression of memories of traumatic events that (according to Freud) necessarily occur in the psychosexual development of every child; the lack of neurological ...

URINARY BLADDER The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ, which acts as a temporary reservoir of urine brought to it by the ureters. The stored urine is passed out through the urethra, when the bladder is distended enough to feel the desire to micturate. Diagram of the urinary system showing the positions of the urinary bladder.    LOCATION   The urinary bladder is situated in the anterior part of the lesser pelvis immediately behind the pubic symphysis and in front of rectum in male, and uterus in the female.  The location of the urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and with age.  (i). When the bladder is empty it lies entirely within the lesser pelvis but when it becomes distended with urine, it expands upward and forward into the abdominal cavity.  (ii). In children, the bladder is an abdominopelvic organ even when it is empty because the pelvic cavity is small and the neck of bladder lies at the level of the uppe...

    INTRODUCTION Nephron is defined as the structural and functional unit of kidney. Each kidney consists of 1 to 1.3 millions of nephrons. The number of nephrons starts decreasing after about 45 to 50 years of age at the rate of 0.8% to 1% every year. Each nephron is formed by two parts: 1. A blind end called renal corpuscle or Malpighian corpuscle 2. A tubular portion called renal tubule. Diagram of the nephron     RENAL CORPUSCLE Renal corpuscle or Malpighian corpuscle is a spheroidal and slightly flattened structure with a diameter of about 200 μ. Function of the renal corpuscle is the filtration of blood which forms the first phase of urine formation. Renal corpuscle is situated in the cortex of the kidney either near the periphery or near the medulla. CLASSIFICATION OF NEPHRONS  Based on the situation of renal corpuscle, the nephrons are classified into two types: 1. Cortical nephrons or superficial nephrons: Nephrons having the corpuscles in o...

MICTURITION  INTRODUCTION   Micturition is a process by which urine is voided from the urinary bladder.  It is a reflex process.  However, in grown up children and adults, it can be controlled voluntarily to some extent.   The functional anatomy and nerve supply of urinary bladder and urethra are essential for the process of micturition.  URETHRAL SPHINCTERS There are two urethral sphincters in urinary tract: 1. Internal urethral sphincter 2. External urethral sphinct INTERNAL URETHRA SPHINCTER . This sphincter is situated between neck of the bladder and upper end of urethra. It is made up of smooth muscle fibers and formed by thickening of detrusor muscle. It is innervated by autonomic nerve fibers. This sphincter closes the urethra when bladder is emptied. EXTERNAL SPHINCTER  External sphincter is located in the urogenital diaphragm. This sphincter is made up of circular skeletal muscle fibers, w...

HIV/AIDS  OVERVIEW   HIV stands for “human immunodeficiency virus,” and it attacks immune cells called CD4 cells. These are types of T cell  white blood cells that circulate, detecting infections throughout the body and faults and anomalies in other cells. HIV targets and infiltrates CD4 cells, using them to create more copies of the virus. In doing so, it destroys the cells and reduces the body’s ability to combat other infections and diseases. This increases the risk and impact of opportunistic infections and some types of cancer. AIDS is a disease caused by infection with HIV and is characterized by profound immunosuppression with associated opportunistic infections, malignancies, wasting, and central nervous system degeneration. HIV is a retrovirus that selectively attacks the CD4T lymphocytes, the immune cells responsible for orchestrating and coordinating the immune response to infection. As a consequence, persons with HIV infection have a deteriorating immune syste...

OVERVIEW Hydronephrosis is swelling of one or both kidneys. Kidney swelling happens when urine can't drain from a kidney and builds up in the kidney as a result. This can occur from a blockage in the tubes that drain urine from the kidneys (ureters) or from an anatomical defect that doesn't allow urine to drain properly.  It can occur anywhere along the urinary tract from the opening of the kidneys to the ureters (draining the kidneys to the bladder), the bladder, and the urethra (draining the bladder). Problems with any of these structures may cause impaired emptying of the urinary system and back up of fluid and pressure. If only one of the kidneys is affected, the condition is called unilateral hydronephrosis. If both kidneys are affected, it is called bilateral hydronephrosis. Hydronephrosis may result in decreased kidney function. If not treated right away, permanent damage to the kidney or kidneys may occur, resulting in kidney failure. DEFINITION Hydronephros...

HYPERTENSION Hypertension is defined as high end persistent high in systolic and Diastolic blood pressure. Hypertension is the medical term for high blood pressure. The definition of high blood pressure changed in 2017, when the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association revised their hypertension guidelines As blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta, the circulating blood exerts pressure on the walls of the blood vessels; this is referred to as the blood pressure (Nicol et al. 2008). Blood pressure varies in different vessels, and in clinical practice the systemic arterial pressure is measured. Blood pressure varies throughout the day. It is often lower during sleep and higher during periods of activity. Several factors affect blood pressure, including cardiac output, circulating blood volume, peripheral resistance, stress, hormones and drugs. A blood pressure between 120 and 129 mm Hg for the top (systolic) number and more than 80 mm Hg (di...